The Headless Bishop: The Life of Saint Denis

Detail of Saint Denis from The Crucifixion of the Parliament of Paris, c.1452, Paris, Musée du Louvre.

Today being 9 October makes this the feast day of the patron saint of Paris, Saint Denis (variations include: Denys, and the Latin form Dionysius). But who was he, and what has he done to deserve this day of celebration? Well, Saint Denis is one of my personal favourite saints, and his story and makes rather interesting reading ...

It's likely that Denis was born in Italy, but little else is known of his early life. He was one of a handful of bishops (including Rusticus and Eleutherius) that was sent by Pope Fabian to Gaul on an evangelical mission. The area had suffered greatly as a result of the Christian persecutions by the Roman Emperor Decius; these bishops were sent with the hope of restoring people's faith and allegiance to Christianity, which had been beginning to flourish there.

Missal of Saint Denis, c.1050 (Cod. Lat. 8878),
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.

From Life and Miracles of St Denis, c.1317 (MS 2090-92),
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.

The group made their way to the Roman city Lutetia (modern day Paris) and settled on
an island in the Seine (Île de la Cité) where they began preaching to the locals. The image above-left depicts Denis and his companions preaching to the people of Paris, it is from a 14C manuscript dedicated to his life. The preaching was quite a success for the group, however the local pagan priests were concerned by the number of conversions to Christianity. Denis and his companions were captured and tortured as a result. There are several accounts written at a later date of the extravagant tortures they had to endure, such as being scourged, racked, and thrown to wild beasts. However, in spite of his pain Denis refused to denounce Christianity and so it was decided that he, along with his loyal companions Rusticus and Eleutherius, would be sentenced to death by beheading. The c.1050 image above-right shows Christ blessing the trio in prison before their martyrdom.

Mural of Saint Denis picking up his decapitated head, at Place du Pantheon, Paris.

The three faithful Christians were taken to the highest hill in Paris (now known as Montmartre) to be beheaded. According to legend, Denis was so devout that even death would not stop him. He simply picked up his stray head and gave it a rinse in a nearby stream, then proceeded to walk for 6 miles whilst still carrying his head and preaching the word of God. In the place where he eventually collapsed and died a small shrine was built in his honour, later to be replaced by the Basilica of Saint Denis.

As well as being the patron saint of Paris (alongside Saint Genevieve), Saint Denis can be invoked to cure headaches. Imagery of him often depicts him as headless and carrying his own head. Here are some examples:

A headless Saint Denis at the left portal of the Notre Dame de Paris.

Statue of a headless Saint Denis at the Musée du Moyen Âge, Paris.

Denis holding the top of his severed head, from a Picture Bible (f.28v) c.1190.
Manuscript (76 F 5), Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague.

Boucicaut Master, Saint Denis (fol. 31v), in Book of Hours (Ms. 2), c.1410-15.

The beheading of Saint Denis, from the tympanum of the north portal of the Basilica of Saint Denis.

Saint-Émilion

Whilst I was staying in Bordeaux I went on a little day trip to the nearby medieval town Saint-Émilion. For anybody else planning on doing this I would advise to not book one of the tours that run from Bordeaux, which are pretty steep at around €80. Instead, you can catch a local bus (I can't remember the number, sorry. Just ask in the Bordeaux tourist office) which runs twice a day each way in peak season. Then once you are there you have the freedom to wander around the town as you like, or you can choose from a selection of tours at tourist office in the town itself. 


In 8C AD the town's population was still sufficiently small enough for a monk named Émilion to take up residence there in a hermitage carved into the rock. It was the monks who followed him that started the commercial production of wines from here, which the now UNESCO town became known for. If you choose to go on the monuments tour (which I highly recommend!) you will be taken to this hermitage. It is a very small cross-shaped cave which had restoration and extension work during the 17C. Inside there is Émilion's stone 'armchair' which was cut into the rock, and a small spring runs through near to the entrance. According to legend, this spring was originally located much further downhill, but miraculously moved in order to provide the hermit with some comfort!

Above from the hermitage is the Holy Trinity Chapel which dates to the 13C. The picture below is of the decorated vaulted ceiling. You're also taken to see this on the monuments tour.

External bell tower belonging to the
underground monolithic church. 

During the medieval period of the town (exact dating is unknown) a monolithic church was dug into the rock. At 38 metres long and 20 metres wide, it is the largest one of its kind in Europe. The picture to the right shows the 14C entrance which was made to replace an earlier more narrow one; you can also see the three story bell tower. The picture below is a close-up of the church's tympanum of the Last Judgement and the Resurrection of the Dead.

On the monuments tour you enter first through the catacombs, and then proceed through to the main church. I believe that the only way to visit the inside of the church, catacombs, and the hermitage is on the monuments tour which you book at the tourist office. The only downside was that no photographs were allowed. The inside of the church was really impressive. There are a few remnants of surviving frescos, and a wonderful low relief of what appeared to be a man, some sort of dragon, and a musician. It was well worth the visit! 

This is the Cadène Arch. It dates to the 13C and is located on the Rue de la Cadène. It was designed in order to monitor people moving from the different sections of the town. It also creates the perfect opportunity to have a little break from the trek up the massively steep hill by taking a photo or two!

This beautiful timbered house adjoins the other side of the arch, and dates to the early 16C.

This is another of Saint-Émilion's steep hills! I was told that the stones for some of the cobbled medieval streets arrived as a result of the wine trade with England. Wine was shipped over to Cornwall and then the barrels were weighted down for the return journey by pebbles and stones from the beaches. 

The Great Wall, not looking so great in my rather pitiful photo; apologies! It is the remains of a 13C Dominican convent.

Remnants of the 12C Cardinal's Palace

I don't rally feel like I've captured the true charm of Saint-Émilion in these pictures. It was just the most spectacular place to visit! I felt like I was surrounded by history in every step that I took around the winding cobbled streets. As I said at the start of the post, if you are visiting the area I strongly recommend taking the time out to visit this completely beautiful town.

Bordeaux

The first stop on my travels this Summer was Bordeaux in Southern France. Here are some photos of a few of the medieval places that I visited whilst I was here:

Porte Calihau
This beautiful gateway to the city was constructed in the late 15C and dedicated to King Charles VII after his victory at Fornovo di Taro in 1495. It became the traditional point of entry for the King and other prestigious people. 

It has two floors which you can enter. The first floor is free and contains a small display about the history of the gate. I believe there is a very small fee to pay to enter the second floor (I may be wrong as it's been a while since I was here, but I think this could have been why I didn't go up there!) but I heard that there is a nice view from up here. The photo below left shows the join where the old town walls used to be.

From the display on the first floor

St. André's Cathedral

The original church was consecrated by Pope Urban II in 1096 when he came here to preach for the First Crusade. However, only a small section of this church remains. It was in this first large church that Eleanor of Aquitaine married Louis VII of France in 1137. 

The main entrance (The Royal Door)

The tympanum of the Royal Door

Renaissance bas-relief of the 'Descent into the Underworld', possibly including Pluto and Persephone.

La Grosse Cloche

This was added in the 15C to the remains of the 13C fortified gate of St. Eloi. It became established as a symbol of the city, and is still on the city's coat of arms. The entrance was also once known as the Porte Sainte-James due to the steady stream of pilgrims who passed through en route to Santiago de Compostela. According to locals when the golden lion atop it faces the river she is thirsty, and you should expect rain!

Musée d'Aquitaine

The Museum of Aquitaine houses objects and documents from the history of Bordeaux and Aquitaine. Definitely worth a visit if you're in Bordeaux.


Take a look at:

• Musee d'Aquitaine webpage
• Office de Tourisme de Bordeaux
• Link to a tourist map of Bordeaux

Heroes in Literature, Part 2: Ogier the Dane

Background
Ogier the Dane (French: Ogier le Danois or Ogier de Danemarche; Danish: Holger Danske) was a widely known and exceptionally popular hero both during the medieval period and later. He was known for being one of Charlemagne's finest knights. The legendary character first appeared in The Song of Roland (c.1100), and is the central hero in La Chevalerie d'Ogier de Danemarche (c.1200). La Chevalerie is a chanson de geste (Old French epic) that details the tale of Ogier the Dane. The form that has survived to the present day was likely composed around 1200 by the poet Raimbert de Paris.


La Chevalerie d'Ogier de Danemarche

According to the poem, Ogier was the son of the Duke of Denmark and a hostage at Charlemagne's court in his youth. His father had neglected his duties to Charlemagne, and as a result Ogier was imprisoned in the fortress of Saint-Omer. Here Ogier met and fell in love with the mother of his son, Baudouinet. Ogier was later knighted for his heroic deeds in a battle against the Saracens to defend Rome. There are several accounts of Ogier's heroism after this, including the tales of how he won his sword (Courtain) and steed (Broiefort).


The story then jumps forward to tell of events concerning his now grown up son Baudouinet. In a pivotal part of the poem, Ogier's son plays chess with Charlemagne's son (Charlot) and wins. Charlot was obviously a pretty sore loser; he became so angry that he struck at Charlot with the chessboard and killed him. Ogier then tried to kill Charlot in an attempt to avenge his son, which resulted in Charlemagne banishing him. 


After a series of other dramatic events (including Ogier's second attempt on Charlot's life) it happened that the Franks had to go to war against a pagan enemy which only Ogier could defeat. When Charlemagne requested his help, Ogier agreed but only on the condition that he was granted permission to murder Charlot beforehand; Charlemagne had to accept in order to save his kingdom. However, when this moment arose God sent a divine message via St. Michael. Ogier was told he must be content with simply giving Charlot a box on the ears! Because of this Ogier was able to turn his unused strength and might on the enemy. During the battle he reportedly killed a giant in single combat, and rescued the daughter of the King of England. The story ends with Ogier's marriage to her.

12C tomb of Ogier and his comrade at the hero's apparent resting place in Meaux, also featuring figures from Carolingian epic (including favourites Bishop Turpin, Roland and Olivier)

Beyond the Epic

Wall painting of Ogier in a church in Denmark

Due to Ogier's popularity, the Chevalerie version of the story was extended with other adventures, such as Roman d'Ogier en alexandrins, c.1335. Another version of the tale of his youth (Les enfances Ogier) was recorded c.1275 by Adenet le Roi and presented to the Queen of France. The story was also published in late fifteenth century Paris, and reissued many times throughout the sixteenth century. However, Ogier's popularity was not restricted to France. He was well known all over Europe, in particular Northern Europe. His story was included in the thirteenth century Old Norse collection of Carolingian narratives, known as the Karlamagnús saga. It is likely that the translation of this was the cause of Ogier's growth in popularity in Sweden and Denmark. He was even featured in two church murals which can be dated to around this time.  A Danish version of his tale was printed in 1534, titled Kong Olger Danskes Krønike. 

Statue at Kronborg Castle, Denmark

By the nineteenth century the hero had become a national symbol of the Danish people. A new version of his story was recounted in the famous fairytale Holger Danske by Hans Christian Anderson (1845). A large statue of Ogier now sits at Kronborg Castle in Denmark.This is to fit with the Danish legend that in a time of great need when the kingdom is threatened by a foreign enemy, Ogier will rise from his sleep and save his country.

• Willem P. Gerritsen and Anthony G. van Melle (eds.), A Dictionary of Medieval Heroes (The Boydell Press: Woodbridge, 2002), see pp. 186-8 for the section on Ogier the Dane.
• Kronborg Castle website

Raoul of Cambrai

The old French epic known as Raoul of Cambrai, belongs to a genre of poems known as the chansons de geste (meaning 'songs of deeds' or 'songs of war'). Of the numerous chansons that survive today the majority of their manuscripts date from around the twelfth century. However it is highly likely that the poems themselves are much older and were preserved through oral history.

Entertainers called jongleurs would have sung or chanted the poems to a number of people. As they were written in the vernacular, this suggests that they would have been performed or read for the entertainment of a lay audience. Jongleurs also performed other forms of poetry, juggled, mimed, played instruments, and even did acrobatic tricks! They were often thought to be untrustworthy, and belonged to the lowest level of medieval society. As they relied upon the generosity of their audience for their pay, this would show that what they performed would have been the popular form of entertainment at that time. The chansons de geste in particular were highly popular.

Traditionally these epic poems have been arranged by their content into three main cycles. These are: the Cycle of the King, the Cycle of William of Orange, and the Cycle of Barons in Revolt (or revolting barons!). Raoul of Cambrai is a superb example from the last of these cycles.

The poem (along with many other chansons) is set during the reign of Louis IV of France, the son of Charlemagne. It weaves a tale of feudal ties and vengeance, which culminates in Raoul being killed by his vassal Bernier at the end of the first section. It would seem that the poem is most likely fictional, however it is possible that there are some historical links to it.


Despite the fact that Raoul of Cambrai is an epic poem and therefore some aspects would have been exaggerated, it is still a superb source for gaining an insight into the late twelfth century (the period in which the surviving version was written). One area in which it would be of use is to the study of knighthood. For example:

'On the next day the praiseworthy Count Raoul knighted Bernier and invested him with the best arms on which he could lay his hands. He put a strong well burnished hauberk on his back and laced a golden helmet on his head. Then he girded the sword with which he was knighted to his side and Bernier straight away mounted his good warhorse.

As soon as Bernier was mounted on his horse every one could see what a good knight he had become. He seized his gold banded shield and held the sharp lance with its pennon fastened by five golden nails in his hand. Then he charged forward on his horse and returned to his place again. There were many knights in the square and they said one to another: "How well he looks in his arms. Even if he is the son of an unwed mother, he must still be of rich and noble birth".' 1

This passage from Raoul of Cambrai tells us a great deal about the ceremony of knighting, and also ideals of being a good knight. For example, that care was taken to describe Bernier's extravagant equipment shows that this was a very important ceremony - and an occasion to be proud of. Due to the expense of this equipment it is also indicative of the growing association between knighthood and the nobility in this period, despite the fact that Bernier was a bastard. Weapons, armour and warhorses did not come cheap, and especially not the lavish examples described above!

This is just one example of the use of this fantastic source. The tale it tells can also help historians gain an insight into many other themes, such as: contemporary ideas about noble society, ideals of the family, the relationship between lords and vassals - the list could go on! And not only is this useful, but it also makes an excellent read! 

1 'Raoul de Cambrai, An Old French Epic', trans. Jessie Crosland, revised by Richard Abels, USNA 1993 at 

http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/sources/cambrai.htm

Sources Used:

• Duggan, Joseph J., '1095 - The Epic', in Denis Hollier (ed.), A New History of French Literature (Harvard University Press: 1994), pp.18-23
• Kaeuper, Richard W.,Chivalry and Violence in Medieval Europe (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2006)
• Newth, Michael, Heroes of the French Epic: Translations from the Chansons de Geste (The Boydell Press: Woodbridge, 2005)